Aug
29
jennifer84corinne asked:
I use to feed my puppy Wellness when I first got her. Then I switched her to Natural Balance Organics. I have noticed that she eats my parents dogs Wellness Super5mix food. I don’t like switching her food so much but I guess I don’t know which is better.. probably whatever she likes I imagine… hard to know what she likes!
I use to feed my puppy Wellness when I first got her. Then I switched her to Natural Balance Organics. I have noticed that she eats my parents dogs Wellness Super5mix food. I don’t like switching her food so much but I guess I don’t know which is better.. probably whatever she likes I imagine… hard to know what she likes!
Anyone know the difference between the two brands?
Drew
Aug
27
Healthcare and the Family Budget – What is a Health Savings Account and Do you Need It?
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Linda Shute asked:
Healthy children are easier on the household budget unfortunately not everyone is so blessed so what do you do? When considering the family budget and being a good parent, providing quality healthcare at a reasonable price is right up there with the mortgage payment, car payments and college tuition.
Health Savings Accounts can be simple and easy to understand. A Health Savings Account is a tax-favored savings account combined with a qualifying high-deductible health insurance plan. Health Savings Accounts allow you to legally avoid federal income tax by depositing 100% of the health plan’s deductible, up to $2,850 for singles or $5,650 for families, into your Health Savings Account. Health Savings Accounts, (HSA) touted as a way to lower health-insurance costs and broaden coverage, have fallen short of their promise. They are gaining popularity because they allow individuals, rather than an HMO or the government, to take charge of their health care. Also, they’re an excellent option for individuals and families without employer-sponsored health insurance. Health Savings Accounts are becoming quite popular for people who are generally healthy and they’re leading the way in this transition.
Savings can be used to help pay the deductible and for non-covered medical expenses, such as dental and vision. Savings reduce or eliminate annual out-of-pocket exposure. Savings not spent remain in the HSA tax-deferred. Savings and investments unlike premiums, unused HSA dollars remain in the HSA until you use them later. Day-to-day expenses come out of the health savings account, while catastrophic expenses are covered by insurance. Health Savings Accounts are gaining popularity because they allow individuals, rather than an HMO or the government, to take charge of their health care. A Health Savings Account combined with a High Deductible Health Insurance Plan gives individuals an economic incentive to become better consumers of health care services because they are now spending their own money up to the level of their high deductible. Health Savings Accounts are an excellent option for individuals and families without employer-sponsored health insurance.
If your employer offers a high-deductible health insurance policy, you may be able to make pretax contributions, like you would with a flexible-spending account. Legislation passed by Congress December 9, 2006, will let you make a one-time transfer of funds tax free from a flexible-spending account to an HSA. You cannot have an HSA if you use a flexible-spending account to pay health-care costs or if you have other medical coverage (say, through a spouse’s policy). You can keep the money in an HSA account even after you leave that job, similar to a 401(k). Keep in mind that you can continue to withdraw money from the account tax-free for qualified medical expenses after age 65. You can’t make new HSA contributions after age 65, but you can still use the money in your account tax-free for medical expenses at any age.
Deposits to an HSA may be made by any policyholder of a qualified High Deductible Health Plan (HDHP), by an employer on behalf of a policyholder, or any other person. Previously, the annual maximum deposit to an HSA was the lesser of the HDHP deductible or specified IRS limits. As of 2007 plan years, Congress has abolished the lower limit based on the deductible, and the maximum contribution will simply be the statutory limit. These include deductibles and coinsurance as well as many other expenses not covered under medical plans, such as dental, vision and chiropractic care; durable medical equipment such as eyeglasses and hearing aids; purchase and use of qualifying over-the-counter medications; and transportation expenses related to medical care. Contributions are deductible, the account accumulates tax-free, and withdrawals used for medical expenses are tax-free. Contributions and gains can be rolled from year to year – there’s no “use it or lose it”. Contributions to the HSAs are tax-deductible at the federal and state level.
Healthcare is the number one issue facing many individuals and companies in America. Now with the release of Michael Moore’s new movie, SICKO, the debate on healthcare in the USA in on. Many well-meaning people believe that a government take-over of healthcare coverage, called a “single-payer” system, is the answer. Health Savings Accounts are combined with a High Deductible Health Plan (HDHP) to offer a more affordable approach to healthcare. They were created to help give control back to consumers and lower healthcare costs. While most healthcare insurance clients say they are satisfied with their current plans, the landscape changes when major illnesses start. Alternatively, your HSA balance can be used to cover your post-age-65 healthcare costs including Medicare Part A and B premiums, Medicare HMO premiums, garden-variety health premiums, insurance deductibles and co-payments, prescriptions, long-term care insurance premiums, and so forth. But what about the person who lives pay check to pay check or the single parent trying to provide healthcare for themselves and children. Combine a tax-favored Health Savings Account (HSA) and an HSA-eligible health insurance plan to save money tax-free for healthcare costs.
Health Savings Account Plans help you take control of your health care expenses with a tax-favored savings account and quality medical coverage. Health Savings Account (HSA) Plans are an excellent choice for individuals and families who want to control their health insurance costs by combining a lower cost high deductible health insurance plan with a tax advantaged savings account and network discounts. Learn how to take advantage of the money-saving benefits of a Health Savings Account. By allowing you to deposit tax-deductible funds into a health savings account that you can use to cover medical costs, Health Savings Accounts enable you to take control of your own health care decisions. Once your insurance policy has become effective, you may begin to fund your Health Savings Account. Please note: To obtain the maximum tax benefit from your Health Savings Account in 2008 as well as lock in 2007 rates, you must have your HSA-qualified insurance plan effective no later than December 31. There are about 10 million people enrolled in “consumer-driven health plans,” and about 6 million of those are Health Savings Accounts. To really maximize your savings pair up a Discount Health Plan, for the everyday savings on you health care, with your HSA and HDHP. You may want to read my other article on Healthcare and the Family Budget - How to Get the Biggest Bang for Your Buck!
Lyndon
Healthy children are easier on the household budget unfortunately not everyone is so blessed so what do you do? When considering the family budget and being a good parent, providing quality healthcare at a reasonable price is right up there with the mortgage payment, car payments and college tuition.
Health Savings Accounts can be simple and easy to understand. A Health Savings Account is a tax-favored savings account combined with a qualifying high-deductible health insurance plan. Health Savings Accounts allow you to legally avoid federal income tax by depositing 100% of the health plan’s deductible, up to $2,850 for singles or $5,650 for families, into your Health Savings Account. Health Savings Accounts, (HSA) touted as a way to lower health-insurance costs and broaden coverage, have fallen short of their promise. They are gaining popularity because they allow individuals, rather than an HMO or the government, to take charge of their health care. Also, they’re an excellent option for individuals and families without employer-sponsored health insurance. Health Savings Accounts are becoming quite popular for people who are generally healthy and they’re leading the way in this transition.
Savings can be used to help pay the deductible and for non-covered medical expenses, such as dental and vision. Savings reduce or eliminate annual out-of-pocket exposure. Savings not spent remain in the HSA tax-deferred. Savings and investments unlike premiums, unused HSA dollars remain in the HSA until you use them later. Day-to-day expenses come out of the health savings account, while catastrophic expenses are covered by insurance. Health Savings Accounts are gaining popularity because they allow individuals, rather than an HMO or the government, to take charge of their health care. A Health Savings Account combined with a High Deductible Health Insurance Plan gives individuals an economic incentive to become better consumers of health care services because they are now spending their own money up to the level of their high deductible. Health Savings Accounts are an excellent option for individuals and families without employer-sponsored health insurance.
If your employer offers a high-deductible health insurance policy, you may be able to make pretax contributions, like you would with a flexible-spending account. Legislation passed by Congress December 9, 2006, will let you make a one-time transfer of funds tax free from a flexible-spending account to an HSA. You cannot have an HSA if you use a flexible-spending account to pay health-care costs or if you have other medical coverage (say, through a spouse’s policy). You can keep the money in an HSA account even after you leave that job, similar to a 401(k). Keep in mind that you can continue to withdraw money from the account tax-free for qualified medical expenses after age 65. You can’t make new HSA contributions after age 65, but you can still use the money in your account tax-free for medical expenses at any age.
Deposits to an HSA may be made by any policyholder of a qualified High Deductible Health Plan (HDHP), by an employer on behalf of a policyholder, or any other person. Previously, the annual maximum deposit to an HSA was the lesser of the HDHP deductible or specified IRS limits. As of 2007 plan years, Congress has abolished the lower limit based on the deductible, and the maximum contribution will simply be the statutory limit. These include deductibles and coinsurance as well as many other expenses not covered under medical plans, such as dental, vision and chiropractic care; durable medical equipment such as eyeglasses and hearing aids; purchase and use of qualifying over-the-counter medications; and transportation expenses related to medical care. Contributions are deductible, the account accumulates tax-free, and withdrawals used for medical expenses are tax-free. Contributions and gains can be rolled from year to year – there’s no “use it or lose it”. Contributions to the HSAs are tax-deductible at the federal and state level.
Healthcare is the number one issue facing many individuals and companies in America. Now with the release of Michael Moore’s new movie, SICKO, the debate on healthcare in the USA in on. Many well-meaning people believe that a government take-over of healthcare coverage, called a “single-payer” system, is the answer. Health Savings Accounts are combined with a High Deductible Health Plan (HDHP) to offer a more affordable approach to healthcare. They were created to help give control back to consumers and lower healthcare costs. While most healthcare insurance clients say they are satisfied with their current plans, the landscape changes when major illnesses start. Alternatively, your HSA balance can be used to cover your post-age-65 healthcare costs including Medicare Part A and B premiums, Medicare HMO premiums, garden-variety health premiums, insurance deductibles and co-payments, prescriptions, long-term care insurance premiums, and so forth. But what about the person who lives pay check to pay check or the single parent trying to provide healthcare for themselves and children. Combine a tax-favored Health Savings Account (HSA) and an HSA-eligible health insurance plan to save money tax-free for healthcare costs.
Health Savings Account Plans help you take control of your health care expenses with a tax-favored savings account and quality medical coverage. Health Savings Account (HSA) Plans are an excellent choice for individuals and families who want to control their health insurance costs by combining a lower cost high deductible health insurance plan with a tax advantaged savings account and network discounts. Learn how to take advantage of the money-saving benefits of a Health Savings Account. By allowing you to deposit tax-deductible funds into a health savings account that you can use to cover medical costs, Health Savings Accounts enable you to take control of your own health care decisions. Once your insurance policy has become effective, you may begin to fund your Health Savings Account. Please note: To obtain the maximum tax benefit from your Health Savings Account in 2008 as well as lock in 2007 rates, you must have your HSA-qualified insurance plan effective no later than December 31. There are about 10 million people enrolled in “consumer-driven health plans,” and about 6 million of those are Health Savings Accounts. To really maximize your savings pair up a Discount Health Plan, for the everyday savings on you health care, with your HSA and HDHP. You may want to read my other article on Healthcare and the Family Budget - How to Get the Biggest Bang for Your Buck!
Lyndon
Aug
26
Basics About Health Alternative
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Caroline James asked:
many people are turning to health alternative therapy and medicine. Different types of therapies are used as health alternative therapies. Generally, these therapies are done to treat the diseases that ail people. According to a survey, almost each alternative therapy used to cure human health is also used for canines.
If you want to learn about the alternative therapy, then look for health alternative therapies on the internet. A number of therapies come under the umbrella of alternative therapy, such as acupuncture, homeopathy, herbal treatments, massage, and nutritional supplements. Many physicians suggest massage therapy as a health alternative. Massage therapy is considered a health alternative, because it helps you decrease the level of hormones in your body. There are a number of benefits of the massage therapy, as it relieves pain, boosts immune system, and increases circulation in your body.
Acupuncture as a health alternative therapy is also an effective therapy. The acupuncture therapy consists of inserting superior needles into specific areas on your body. This therapy is done in order to balance the flow of power in your body. Acupuncture therapy is an olden Chinese practice, which is always used to control disease and treat unending ailments.
A number of health alternative medicines and techniques are available in the drugstores. Tea with Tulasi leaves and ginger is also considered the best health alternative medicine. Fasting for a day due to stomach pain is also one of the health alternative techniques. This technique is used by people for a long period of time.
Many people these days try natural health alternative therapies for the strong health. Some of the most common natural health alternative therapies are messaging your temples to relieve a headache, listening to your car radio to de-stressing during a traffic jam, or applying an ice pack to a sprained ankle. People are using all these therapies for a long time as an alternative for medicinal therapies.
According to survey made by the World Health Organization, about 80% population of the world relies upon health alternative therapy as a basic form of health care. More and more people these days are turning to health alternative therapies, because the conventional medicines are unable to solve all of the health problems. Another thing is that this system of medicine is creating many health problems instead of solving them.
Acupressure as a health alternative therapy is considered one of the best health alternative therapies. It is a traditional Chinese medicine physical technique, which is similar to the acupuncture therapy. This therapy includes placing bodily pressure by elbow, hand, or with the help of different devices on various pressure points on the surface of your body. This therapy is done in order to bring greater balance and circulation of energies in your body. Apart from that, this therapy is also tried by many martial arts in China for health purposes as well as for self-defense. The most significant feature of the health alternative therapy is that it treats you as a natural entity instead of treating just a particular disease. Several scientific researches have also proved that health alternative treatments are more successful, more reasonable, and less inexpensive.
Elliott
many people are turning to health alternative therapy and medicine. Different types of therapies are used as health alternative therapies. Generally, these therapies are done to treat the diseases that ail people. According to a survey, almost each alternative therapy used to cure human health is also used for canines.
If you want to learn about the alternative therapy, then look for health alternative therapies on the internet. A number of therapies come under the umbrella of alternative therapy, such as acupuncture, homeopathy, herbal treatments, massage, and nutritional supplements. Many physicians suggest massage therapy as a health alternative. Massage therapy is considered a health alternative, because it helps you decrease the level of hormones in your body. There are a number of benefits of the massage therapy, as it relieves pain, boosts immune system, and increases circulation in your body.
Acupuncture as a health alternative therapy is also an effective therapy. The acupuncture therapy consists of inserting superior needles into specific areas on your body. This therapy is done in order to balance the flow of power in your body. Acupuncture therapy is an olden Chinese practice, which is always used to control disease and treat unending ailments.
A number of health alternative medicines and techniques are available in the drugstores. Tea with Tulasi leaves and ginger is also considered the best health alternative medicine. Fasting for a day due to stomach pain is also one of the health alternative techniques. This technique is used by people for a long period of time.
Many people these days try natural health alternative therapies for the strong health. Some of the most common natural health alternative therapies are messaging your temples to relieve a headache, listening to your car radio to de-stressing during a traffic jam, or applying an ice pack to a sprained ankle. People are using all these therapies for a long time as an alternative for medicinal therapies.
According to survey made by the World Health Organization, about 80% population of the world relies upon health alternative therapy as a basic form of health care. More and more people these days are turning to health alternative therapies, because the conventional medicines are unable to solve all of the health problems. Another thing is that this system of medicine is creating many health problems instead of solving them.
Acupressure as a health alternative therapy is considered one of the best health alternative therapies. It is a traditional Chinese medicine physical technique, which is similar to the acupuncture therapy. This therapy includes placing bodily pressure by elbow, hand, or with the help of different devices on various pressure points on the surface of your body. This therapy is done in order to bring greater balance and circulation of energies in your body. Apart from that, this therapy is also tried by many martial arts in China for health purposes as well as for self-defense. The most significant feature of the health alternative therapy is that it treats you as a natural entity instead of treating just a particular disease. Several scientific researches have also proved that health alternative treatments are more successful, more reasonable, and less inexpensive.
Elliott
Aug
16
althp health asked:
All we know well that herbal nutrients are required to support healthy metabolism and maintain functions of our body. Available data indicate that many more vitamins and vitamin-like nutrients are yet to be discovered in herbs today. That is why herbal medicines were used for thousand years to fight diseases and improve body functions. Herbal nutrients have been shown to help heal many maladies, improve general health and specific pathological conditions. Herbs can help fight disease and premature aging, maintain sustainable and enjoyable lifestyle.
Alternative health professionals is a NZ based online shop, offering you the largest range of natural health products, including vitamin supplements. We also offer natural beauty products, herbal medicines and remedies.
At Alternative health professionals you will find information on alternative treatments for mind body and soul within our articles section, and in our online store, you will find naturally good products from aromatherapy supplies to herbal balms and lanolin skincare.
Our all natural herbal supplements are obtained from the herbs proven to be the richest natural sources of specific essential nutrients and are provided in the formulation optimal for assimilation by the body. Herbal antioxidants and essential unsaturated oils are not produced by the body but are required for multiple body functions and promote immunity to keep away diseases.
The essential oils used in aromatherapy are extracted from many parts of the aromatic plant: leaves, stems, flowers, seeds, roots, barks, fruits and resins. The oils are a concentrated form of plant energy possessing the qualities of the particular plant, and are usually many times more potent than the comparable dried herbs.
Now a days mostly people face skin problem. All we have different kind of skin so the treatment must be different. We help you to get the best herbal treatment for your skin. When you start shedding the winter layers of clothing upon spring’s arrival, you will possibly find your skin and scalp are dry and flaky, itchy and uncomfortable. Winter weather dries your skin out. You can bring skin back to a youthful glow by cleansing your body internally and exfoliating and moisturizing your skin.
Quinn
All we know well that herbal nutrients are required to support healthy metabolism and maintain functions of our body. Available data indicate that many more vitamins and vitamin-like nutrients are yet to be discovered in herbs today. That is why herbal medicines were used for thousand years to fight diseases and improve body functions. Herbal nutrients have been shown to help heal many maladies, improve general health and specific pathological conditions. Herbs can help fight disease and premature aging, maintain sustainable and enjoyable lifestyle.
Alternative health professionals is a NZ based online shop, offering you the largest range of natural health products, including vitamin supplements. We also offer natural beauty products, herbal medicines and remedies.
At Alternative health professionals you will find information on alternative treatments for mind body and soul within our articles section, and in our online store, you will find naturally good products from aromatherapy supplies to herbal balms and lanolin skincare.
Our all natural herbal supplements are obtained from the herbs proven to be the richest natural sources of specific essential nutrients and are provided in the formulation optimal for assimilation by the body. Herbal antioxidants and essential unsaturated oils are not produced by the body but are required for multiple body functions and promote immunity to keep away diseases.
The essential oils used in aromatherapy are extracted from many parts of the aromatic plant: leaves, stems, flowers, seeds, roots, barks, fruits and resins. The oils are a concentrated form of plant energy possessing the qualities of the particular plant, and are usually many times more potent than the comparable dried herbs.
Now a days mostly people face skin problem. All we have different kind of skin so the treatment must be different. We help you to get the best herbal treatment for your skin. When you start shedding the winter layers of clothing upon spring’s arrival, you will possibly find your skin and scalp are dry and flaky, itchy and uncomfortable. Winter weather dries your skin out. You can bring skin back to a youthful glow by cleansing your body internally and exfoliating and moisturizing your skin.
Quinn
Aug
16
Nutritional Health Products Store Nutritional Weight Loss Vitamin Health Supplements
Filed Under Wellness | Leave a Comment
nutritionalmart asked:
al Health Products Store Nutritional Weight Loss Vitamin Health Supplements
Nutritional Mart is an online store that carries many different NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENTS WEIGHT LOSS SUPPLEMENTS, HEALTH SUPPLEMENTS, NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENTS, HERBAL SUPPLEMENTS for a Healthier and Longer Life. Many NATURAL PRODUCTS NATURAL HEALTH PRODUCTS, NATURAL HEALTH STORE, VITAMIN STORE, LOWER BLOOD SUGAR, DISCOUNT VITAMINS sold at NUTRITIONAL MART can boost one’s energy and immune system.
We also feature many special products HEALTH PRODUCTS, NATURAL HEALTH, WEIGHT LOSS SUPPLEMENTS, HEALTH SUPPLEMENTS, NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENTS, HERBAL SUPPLEMENTS, NATURAL HEALTH PRODUCTS, NATURAL HEALTH STORE, VITAMIN STORE, LOWER BLOOD SUGAR, DISCOUNT VITAMINS that are uncommon in most stores, but are very beneficial to one’s health. We carry many top-name brands such as Natural, Nature Made, and Schiff for dietary and HEALTH SUPPLEMENTS.
In addition to the NATURAL PRODUCTS and HEALTH PRODUCTS, we carry a wide array of other Healthier Products , WEIGHT LOSS SUPPLEMENTS , LOWER BLOOD SUGAR and VITAMIN STORE.
If you have any questions please do not hesitate to contact us at http://www.nutritionalmart.com We have NUTRITIONAL PRODUCTS and HEALTH PRODUCTS specialist on hand and ready to assist you. Online prices reflect refurbished products.
Nutritional Mart has been a leading provider of NATURAL PRODUCTS and HEALTH PRODUCTS for over 7 years. Our clientele includes Natural, Nature Made, and Schiff for dietary Natural and Health Supplements.
Our Supplement of NATURAL PRODUCTS and HEALTH PRODUCTS and knowledge of HEALTH PRODUCTS topography is second to none. Nutritional Mart primary objective is to SUPPLEMENTS of HERBAL, WEIGHT LOSS and NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENTS of NATURAL and HEALTH PRODUCTS providing NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENTS that can effectively prolong life at its most optimal level. to you in accomplishing your goals in the most time and cost efficient manner.
Providing NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENTS that can effectively prolong life at its most optimal level. Our unique product line features dietary supplements of exceptional value as they contain the highest quality ingredients and are made with much precision and care. Featured products include thoroughly researched and scientifically developed health-targeting formulas that effectively improve the health of individuals as well as helping to prevent the onset of various diseases. We also produce products with specific individual all-natural ingredients that can be used to improve certain health aspects. New innovative and unique products are constantly being added to our line as we strive to create natural remedies to provide people with improved health and prolonged lives.
Nutritional Mart Provide You to Many Products of HEALTH PRODUCTS, NATURAL HEALTH, WEIGHT LOSS SUPPLEMENTS, HEALTH SUPPLEMENTS, NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENTS, HERBAL SUPPLEMENTS, NATURAL HEALTH PRODUCTS, NATURAL HEALTH STORE, VITAMIN STORE, LOWER BLOOD SUGAR, DISCOUNT VITAMINS etc that will helpful for you to achieve better Health.
Currently, the accelerated growth of science creates warning signs of how our everyday environment causes undesirable diseases, while also providing answers to preventing the onset of diseases. We at Nature’s Bloom are dedicated to utilizing modern-age science in formulating natural remedies that have been shown to help ward off various diseases.
We also feature our own Nature’s Bloom product line of premium NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENTS. Please browse the store by categories or by searching for a specific item. If there are any questions, please feel free to contact us :http://www.nutritionalmart.com.
Joe
al Health Products Store Nutritional Weight Loss Vitamin Health Supplements
Nutritional Mart is an online store that carries many different NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENTS WEIGHT LOSS SUPPLEMENTS, HEALTH SUPPLEMENTS, NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENTS, HERBAL SUPPLEMENTS for a Healthier and Longer Life. Many NATURAL PRODUCTS NATURAL HEALTH PRODUCTS, NATURAL HEALTH STORE, VITAMIN STORE, LOWER BLOOD SUGAR, DISCOUNT VITAMINS sold at NUTRITIONAL MART can boost one’s energy and immune system.
We also feature many special products HEALTH PRODUCTS, NATURAL HEALTH, WEIGHT LOSS SUPPLEMENTS, HEALTH SUPPLEMENTS, NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENTS, HERBAL SUPPLEMENTS, NATURAL HEALTH PRODUCTS, NATURAL HEALTH STORE, VITAMIN STORE, LOWER BLOOD SUGAR, DISCOUNT VITAMINS that are uncommon in most stores, but are very beneficial to one’s health. We carry many top-name brands such as Natural, Nature Made, and Schiff for dietary and HEALTH SUPPLEMENTS.
In addition to the NATURAL PRODUCTS and HEALTH PRODUCTS, we carry a wide array of other Healthier Products , WEIGHT LOSS SUPPLEMENTS , LOWER BLOOD SUGAR and VITAMIN STORE.
If you have any questions please do not hesitate to contact us at http://www.nutritionalmart.com We have NUTRITIONAL PRODUCTS and HEALTH PRODUCTS specialist on hand and ready to assist you. Online prices reflect refurbished products.
Nutritional Mart has been a leading provider of NATURAL PRODUCTS and HEALTH PRODUCTS for over 7 years. Our clientele includes Natural, Nature Made, and Schiff for dietary Natural and Health Supplements.
Our Supplement of NATURAL PRODUCTS and HEALTH PRODUCTS and knowledge of HEALTH PRODUCTS topography is second to none. Nutritional Mart primary objective is to SUPPLEMENTS of HERBAL, WEIGHT LOSS and NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENTS of NATURAL and HEALTH PRODUCTS providing NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENTS that can effectively prolong life at its most optimal level. to you in accomplishing your goals in the most time and cost efficient manner.
Providing NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENTS that can effectively prolong life at its most optimal level. Our unique product line features dietary supplements of exceptional value as they contain the highest quality ingredients and are made with much precision and care. Featured products include thoroughly researched and scientifically developed health-targeting formulas that effectively improve the health of individuals as well as helping to prevent the onset of various diseases. We also produce products with specific individual all-natural ingredients that can be used to improve certain health aspects. New innovative and unique products are constantly being added to our line as we strive to create natural remedies to provide people with improved health and prolonged lives.
Nutritional Mart Provide You to Many Products of HEALTH PRODUCTS, NATURAL HEALTH, WEIGHT LOSS SUPPLEMENTS, HEALTH SUPPLEMENTS, NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENTS, HERBAL SUPPLEMENTS, NATURAL HEALTH PRODUCTS, NATURAL HEALTH STORE, VITAMIN STORE, LOWER BLOOD SUGAR, DISCOUNT VITAMINS etc that will helpful for you to achieve better Health.
Currently, the accelerated growth of science creates warning signs of how our everyday environment causes undesirable diseases, while also providing answers to preventing the onset of diseases. We at Nature’s Bloom are dedicated to utilizing modern-age science in formulating natural remedies that have been shown to help ward off various diseases.
We also feature our own Nature’s Bloom product line of premium NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENTS. Please browse the store by categories or by searching for a specific item. If there are any questions, please feel free to contact us :http://www.nutritionalmart.com.
Joe
Aug
15
Personal Health Records–Who Are the Key PHR Providers and How Are They Handling Laboratory Results?
Filed Under Wellness | Leave a Comment
Mark Terry asked:
Several significant events have driven public and industry interest in personal health records. In 2004, President George W. Bush outlined a plan for the implementation of an electronic health record that could be accessed by all Americans. Although numerous companies had been in this market for several years, the announcement provided impetus for growth in this area. In 2007 and early 2008, computer giants Google and Microsoft announced their intentions to enter into this market, Google with Google Health and Microsoft with Microsoft HealthVault.
In March of 2008, laboratory industry leader Quest Diagnostics announced a partnership with Google Health to provide uploading of laboratory testing to Google’s version of a personal health record (PHR).
The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services cites six positive outcomes with the implementation of widespread personal and/or electronic health records.
1. Improved healthcare quality
2. Prevention of medical errors
3. Reduction of healthcare costs
4. Increased administrative efficiencies
5. Decreased paperwork
6. Expanded access to affordable healthcare
Although there are a number of potential barriers to widespread implementation of personal health records, three are the most significant. They are:
1. Interoperability. The various systems need to be able to interact with each other and various computer systems.
2. Privacy and Security. The systems need to provide HIPAA-like compliance, but also have security measures similar to the banking industry and in compliance with a variety of industry standards.
3. Data Modification. In order for physicians to be able to act on medical information, they will need to be confident of the veracity of the medical data. This will at least partly require that they be able to determine the sources and modifications that have occurred to the information in personal health records.
Although there are a number of companies currently in the marketplace offering personal health records, they fall into four broad categories.
1. Standalones. These companies are primarily personal health record companies, such as LifeOnKey or FollowMe. In some cases these companies also specialize or have specialty subcategories, such as MiVia, which was designed for the migrant farmworker population, or LifeOnKey’s Diabetes focus or Women’s Health focus.
2. Spin-Offs of Information Technology or Software Companies. Most notable in this category are Google Health and Microsoft HealthVault.
3. Healthcare Providers. Examples of this are Partners HealthCare’s Patient Gateway and the Group Health Cooperative’s MyGroupHealth.
4. Platform Providers. In some cases, the companies are focused less on being the patient/consumer’s personal health record, than in providing the platform and/or technology for personal health records. MedCommons is an example of this. Microsoft HealthVault may also fall into this category. FollowMe also is willing to customize their product for other companies, which then provide their own branding.
There are five ways personal health record providers are generating revenue.
1. Subscriptions. Typically, standalone PHR providers charge nominal annual subscription rates ranging from about $25 to $50.
2. Advertising. Google Health and Microsoft HealthVault indicate they will generate income via advertising. It’s not yet clear how Microsoft intends to do this, but Google Health has indicated that their product itself will not contain advertising, but will have search boxes that connect to the traditional Google page, which does have targeted advertising.
3. Data mining. Although often mentioned as a possible source of revenue, few companies indicate they are currently selling non-user-identified health data to researchers or pharmaceutical companies.
4. Increased Service. Healthcare providers, in general, acknowledge that their personal health record systems are just part of the service and a happy client will remain with the system. Google Health indicates they aren’t in the healthcare business and part of their mission is to drive users to Google.
5. Subcontracting and licensing. MedCommons is focusing on providing their services and platform technology for other users and companies that might want to deliver personal health records. It’s not clear if Microsoft HealthVault plans to enter the market in this fashion, but many industry sources suggest it’s likely.
Ultimately, what is clear from looking at a cross-section of PHR providers is that there are a number of approaches to dealing with laboratory results depending on the nature of the PHR. Google Health has recently announced a partnership with Quest Diagnostics.
This is likely to be the first in a number of similar relationships with other laboratory corporations. The real question, one that remains unaddressed yet, is whether competing labs will create partnerships with Google Health and other PHRs or whether it will become an exclusive and competitive marketplace, where some PHRs will find their services locked out of the market.
Another potential question is whether or not a laboratory, independent or affiliated with a particular healthcare provider, is going to be able to provide data uploads to a myriad of different PHRs. Although largely a technical issue, it’s hard to see how a laboratory needing to provide results to twenty or thirty different PHRs in addition to requesting physicians and patients, is going to make laboratory medicine more efficient or cost-effective.
PHRs Gain Momentum
In his January 20, 2004, State of the Union Address, President George W. Bush outlined a plan for the implementation of an electronic health record that could be accessed by all Americans. The system was to be in place by 2015. According to the White House Web site, patient participation would be voluntarily, and “these electronic health records will be designed to share information privately and securely among and between health care providers when authorized by the patient.”
To achieve that goal, the following steps were taken:
1. Health Information Standards were adopted. Under the direction of the Department of Health and Human Services, in cooperation with other Federal agencies and the private sector, voluntary standards were to be identified and endorsed.
2. Health Care Information Technology Demonstration Project funding was increased to $100 million.
3. Federal agencies were encouraged to adopt Health Information Technology.
4. A sub-cabinet level position of National Health Information Technology Coordinator was created. This falls under the Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology, part of the Department of Health and Human Services.
It’s important to note that the Bush Administration’s proposal did not break new ground. Numerous companies providing personal health records (PHR), medical health records, and electronic health records or some way of storing and delivering medical information electronically were in existence for several years prior to the Bush Administration’s efforts.
The announcement of launches into the health information technology (HIT) arena by Google and Microsoft has renewed media interest in the area, and may signal a renewed velocity and vigor to the market.
Kendrick
Several significant events have driven public and industry interest in personal health records. In 2004, President George W. Bush outlined a plan for the implementation of an electronic health record that could be accessed by all Americans. Although numerous companies had been in this market for several years, the announcement provided impetus for growth in this area. In 2007 and early 2008, computer giants Google and Microsoft announced their intentions to enter into this market, Google with Google Health and Microsoft with Microsoft HealthVault.
In March of 2008, laboratory industry leader Quest Diagnostics announced a partnership with Google Health to provide uploading of laboratory testing to Google’s version of a personal health record (PHR).
The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services cites six positive outcomes with the implementation of widespread personal and/or electronic health records.
1. Improved healthcare quality
2. Prevention of medical errors
3. Reduction of healthcare costs
4. Increased administrative efficiencies
5. Decreased paperwork
6. Expanded access to affordable healthcare
Although there are a number of potential barriers to widespread implementation of personal health records, three are the most significant. They are:
1. Interoperability. The various systems need to be able to interact with each other and various computer systems.
2. Privacy and Security. The systems need to provide HIPAA-like compliance, but also have security measures similar to the banking industry and in compliance with a variety of industry standards.
3. Data Modification. In order for physicians to be able to act on medical information, they will need to be confident of the veracity of the medical data. This will at least partly require that they be able to determine the sources and modifications that have occurred to the information in personal health records.
Although there are a number of companies currently in the marketplace offering personal health records, they fall into four broad categories.
1. Standalones. These companies are primarily personal health record companies, such as LifeOnKey or FollowMe. In some cases these companies also specialize or have specialty subcategories, such as MiVia, which was designed for the migrant farmworker population, or LifeOnKey’s Diabetes focus or Women’s Health focus.
2. Spin-Offs of Information Technology or Software Companies. Most notable in this category are Google Health and Microsoft HealthVault.
3. Healthcare Providers. Examples of this are Partners HealthCare’s Patient Gateway and the Group Health Cooperative’s MyGroupHealth.
4. Platform Providers. In some cases, the companies are focused less on being the patient/consumer’s personal health record, than in providing the platform and/or technology for personal health records. MedCommons is an example of this. Microsoft HealthVault may also fall into this category. FollowMe also is willing to customize their product for other companies, which then provide their own branding.
There are five ways personal health record providers are generating revenue.
1. Subscriptions. Typically, standalone PHR providers charge nominal annual subscription rates ranging from about $25 to $50.
2. Advertising. Google Health and Microsoft HealthVault indicate they will generate income via advertising. It’s not yet clear how Microsoft intends to do this, but Google Health has indicated that their product itself will not contain advertising, but will have search boxes that connect to the traditional Google page, which does have targeted advertising.
3. Data mining. Although often mentioned as a possible source of revenue, few companies indicate they are currently selling non-user-identified health data to researchers or pharmaceutical companies.
4. Increased Service. Healthcare providers, in general, acknowledge that their personal health record systems are just part of the service and a happy client will remain with the system. Google Health indicates they aren’t in the healthcare business and part of their mission is to drive users to Google.
5. Subcontracting and licensing. MedCommons is focusing on providing their services and platform technology for other users and companies that might want to deliver personal health records. It’s not clear if Microsoft HealthVault plans to enter the market in this fashion, but many industry sources suggest it’s likely.
Ultimately, what is clear from looking at a cross-section of PHR providers is that there are a number of approaches to dealing with laboratory results depending on the nature of the PHR. Google Health has recently announced a partnership with Quest Diagnostics.
This is likely to be the first in a number of similar relationships with other laboratory corporations. The real question, one that remains unaddressed yet, is whether competing labs will create partnerships with Google Health and other PHRs or whether it will become an exclusive and competitive marketplace, where some PHRs will find their services locked out of the market.
Another potential question is whether or not a laboratory, independent or affiliated with a particular healthcare provider, is going to be able to provide data uploads to a myriad of different PHRs. Although largely a technical issue, it’s hard to see how a laboratory needing to provide results to twenty or thirty different PHRs in addition to requesting physicians and patients, is going to make laboratory medicine more efficient or cost-effective.
PHRs Gain Momentum
In his January 20, 2004, State of the Union Address, President George W. Bush outlined a plan for the implementation of an electronic health record that could be accessed by all Americans. The system was to be in place by 2015. According to the White House Web site, patient participation would be voluntarily, and “these electronic health records will be designed to share information privately and securely among and between health care providers when authorized by the patient.”
To achieve that goal, the following steps were taken:
1. Health Information Standards were adopted. Under the direction of the Department of Health and Human Services, in cooperation with other Federal agencies and the private sector, voluntary standards were to be identified and endorsed.
2. Health Care Information Technology Demonstration Project funding was increased to $100 million.
3. Federal agencies were encouraged to adopt Health Information Technology.
4. A sub-cabinet level position of National Health Information Technology Coordinator was created. This falls under the Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology, part of the Department of Health and Human Services.
It’s important to note that the Bush Administration’s proposal did not break new ground. Numerous companies providing personal health records (PHR), medical health records, and electronic health records or some way of storing and delivering medical information electronically were in existence for several years prior to the Bush Administration’s efforts.
The announcement of launches into the health information technology (HIT) arena by Google and Microsoft has renewed media interest in the area, and may signal a renewed velocity and vigor to the market.
Kendrick
Aug
15
How will the freedom of expression affects the wellness of the society?
Filed Under Wellness | 4 Comments
Aug
14
Imbalance of Ecosystems and Its Effect on Public and Livestock Health
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Dr.Kedar Karki asked:
Imbalance of Ecosystems and Its effect on Public and Livestock health
Dr.Kedar Karki M.V.St. (Preventive veterinary Medicine)
Central Veterinary Laboratory Tripureshwor
The health of humans, like all living organisms, is dependent on an ecosystem that sustains life. Healthy ecosystems are the sine qua non for healthy organisms. Yet there is abundant evidence that many life-support systems are far from healthy, placing an increased burden on human health. In some areas of the world, gains in life expectancy and quality of life made during the twentieth century are at risk of being reversed in the twenty-first century. The consequences of ecosystem degradation to human health are numerous, and include health risks from unsafe drinking water, polluted air, climate change, emerging new diseases, and the resurgence of old diseases owing to ecological imbalances. Reversing this damage is possible in some cases, but not in others. Prevention of ecological damage is by far the most efficient strategy.
DEFINING ECOSYSTEMS
An ecological system may be defined as a community of plants and animals interacting with each other and their abiotic, or natural, environment. Typically, ecosystems are differentiated on the basis of dominant vegetation, topography, climate, or some other criteria. Boreal forests, for example, are characterized by the predominance of coniferous trees; prairies are characterized by the predominance of grasses; the Arctic tundra is determined partly by the harsh climatic zone. In most areas of the world, the human community is an important and often dominant component of the ecosystem. Ecosystems include not only natural areas (e.g., forests, lakes, marine coastal systems) but also human-constructed systems (e.g., urban ecosystems, agro-ecosystems, impoundments). Human populations are increasingly concentrated in urban ecosystems, and it is estimated that, by the year 2010, 50 percent of the world’s population will be living in urban areas.
A landscape comprises a mosaic of ecosystems, including towns, rivers, lakes, agricultural systems, and so on. Precise boundaries between ecosystems are often difficult to establish. Often regions slide into one another gradually, over a protracted “transition” zone, as for example between the boreal forest and the Taiga regions of Canada.
ECOSYSTEM HEALTH
It is important to recognize the inherent difficulties in defining “health,” whether at the level of the individual, population, or ecosystem. The concept of health is somewhat of an enigma, being easier to define in its absence (sickness) than in its presence. Perhaps partially for that reason, ecologists have resisted applying the notion of “health” to ecosystems. Yet, ecosystems can become dysfunctional, particularly under chronic stress from human activity.Example for this can be cited the discharge of nutrients from sewage, industrial waste, or agricultural runoff into lakes or rivers affects the normal functioning of the ecosystem, and can result in severe impairment. Excessive nutrient inputs from human activity was one of the major factors that severely compromised the health of the lower Laurentian Great Lakes (Lake Erie and Lake Ontario) and regions of the upper Great Lakes (Lake Michigan). Unfortunately, degraded ecosystems are becoming more the rule than the exception.
The study of the features of degraded systems, and comparisons with systems that have not been altered by human activity, makes it possible to identify the characteristics of healthy ecosystems. Healthy ecosystems may be characterized not only by the absence of signs of pathology, but also by signs of health, including measures of vigor (productivity), organization, and resilience.
Vigor can be assessed in terms of the metabolism (activity and productivity) of the system. Ecosystems differ greatly in their normal ranges of productivity. Estuaries are far more productive than open oceans, and marshes have higher productivity than deserts. Health is not evaluated by applying one standard to all systems. Organization can be assessed by the structure of the biotic community that forms an ecosystem and by the nature of the interactions between the species (both plants and animals). Invariably, healthy ecosystems have more diversity of biota than ecologically compromised systems. Resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to maintain its structure and functions in the face of natural disturbances. Systems with a history of chronic stress are less likely to recover from normal perturbations such as drought than those systems that have been relatively less stressed.
Healthy ecosystems can also be characterized in economic, social, and human health terms. Healthy ecosystems support a certain level of economic activity. This is not to say that the ecosystem is necessarily self-sufficient, but rather that it supports economic productivity to enable the human community to meet reasonable needs. Inevitably, ecosystem degradation impinges on the long-term sustainability of the human economy that is associated with it, although in the short-term this may not be evident, as natural capital (e.g., soils, renewable resources) may be overexploited and temporarily enhance economic returns. Similarly, with respect to social well-being, healthy ecosystems provide a basis for and encourage community integration. Historically, for example, native Hawaiian groups managed their ecosystem through a well-developed social cohesiveness that provided a high degree of cooperation in fishing and farming activity.
Another reflection of ecosystem health lies directly in the public health domain. In spring 2000, a deadly strain of the bacterium E-coli (0157:H7) entered the public water supply in Walkerton, Ontario, Canada, causing seven deaths and making thousands sick. This small town, with a population of five thousand, is in a farming community. Inadequate manure management from cattle operations was the likely source of this tragedy.
HOW HEALTHY ECOSYSTEMS BECOME PATHOLOGICAL
Stress from human activity is a major factor in transforming healthy ecosystems to sick ecosystems. Chronic stress from human activity differs from natural disturbances. Natural disturbances (fires, floods, periodic insect infestations) are part of the dynamics of most ecosystems. These processes help to “reset” ecosystems by recycling nutrients and clearing space for recolonization by biota that may be better adapted to changing environments. Thus, natural perturbations help keep ecosystems healthy. In contrast, chronic and acute stress on ecosystems resulting from human activity (e.g., construction of large dams, release of nutrients and toxic substances into the air, water, and land) generally results in long-term ecological dysfunction.
Five major sources of human-induced (anthropogenic) stresses have been identified by D. J. Rapport and A. M. Friend (1979): physical restructuring, overharvesting, waste residuals, introduction of exotic species, and global change.
Physical Restructuring. Activities such as wetland drainage, removal of shoals in lakes, damming of rivers, and road construction fragment the landscape and alter and damage critical habitat. These activities also disrupt nutrient cycling, and cause the loss of biodiversity.
Overharvesting. Overexploitation is commonplace when it comes to harvesting of wildlife, fisheries, and forests. Over long periods of time, stocks of preferred species are reduced. For example, the giant redwoods that once thrived along the California coast now exist only in remnant patches because of overharvesting. When dominant species like the giant redwoods (arguably the world’s tallest tree—one specimen was recorded at 110 meters tall with a circumference of 13.4 meters) are lost, the entire ecosystem becomes transformed. Overharvesting often results in reduced biodiversity of endemic species, while facilitating the invasion of opportunistic species.
Waste Residuals. Discharges from municipal, industrial, and agricultural sources into the air, water, and land have severely compromised many of the earth’s ecosystems. The effects are particularly apparent in aquatic ecosystems. In some lakes that lack a natural buffering capacity, acid precipitation has eliminated most of the fish and other organisms. While the visual effect appears beneficial (water clarity goes up) the impact on ecosystem health is devastating. Systems that once contained a variety of organisms and were highly productive (biologically) become devoid of most lifeforms except for a few acid-tolerant bacteria and sediment-dwelling organisms.
Introduction of Exotic Species. The spread of exotics has become a problem in almost every ecosystem of the world. Transporting species from their native habitat to entirely new ecosystems can wreck havoc, as the new environments are often without natural checks and balances for the new species. In the Great Lakes Basin, the accidental introduction of two small pelagic fishes, the alewife and the rainbow smelt, combined with the simultaneous overharvesting of natural predators, such as the lake trout, led to a significant decline in native fish species. The introduction of the sea lamprey, an eel-like predacious fish that attacks larger fish, into Lake Erie and the upper Great Lakes further destabilized the native fish community. The sea lamprey contributed to the demise of the deepwater benthic fish community by preying on lake trout, whitefish, and burbot. This contributed to a shift in the fish community from one that had been dominated by large benthics to one dominated by small pelagics (fish found in the upper layers of the lake profile). This shift from bottom-dwelling fish (benthic) to surface-dwelling fish (pelagic) has now been partially reversed by yet another accidental introduction of an exotic: the zebra mussel. As the zebra mussel is a highly efficient filter of both phtyoplankton and zooplankton, its presence has reduced the available food in the surface waters for pelagic fish. However, while the benthic fish community has gained back its dominance, the preferred benthic fish species have not yet recovered owing to the degree of initial degradation. Overall, the increasing dominance by exotics not only altered the ecology, but also reduced significantly the commercial value of the fisheries.
Global Change. Rapid climate change (or climate warming) is an emerging potential global stress on all of the earth’s ecosystems. In evolutionary time, there have of course been large fluctuations in climate. However, for the most part these fluctuations have occurred gradually over long periods of time. Rapid climate change is an entirely different matter. By altering both averages and extremes in precipitation, temperature, and storm events, and by destabilizing the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), which controls weather patterns over much of the southern Pacific region, many ecosystem processes can become significantly altered. Excessive periods of drought or unusually heavy rains and flooding will exceed the tolerance for many species, thus changing the biotic composition. Flooding and unusually high winds contribute to soil erosion, and at the same time add to nutrient load in rivers and coastal waters.
These anthropogenic stresses have compromised ecosystem function in most regions of the world, resulting in ecosystem distress syndrome (EDS). EDS is characterized by a group of signs, including abnormalities in nutrient cycling, productivity, species diversity and richness, biotic structure, disease prevalence, soil fertility, and so on. The consequences of these changes for human health are not inconsiderable. Impoverished biotic communities are natural harbors for pathogens that affect humans and other species.
ECOSYSTEM HEALTH AND HUMAN HEALTH
An important aspect of ecosystem degradation is the associated increased risk to human health. Traditionally, the concern has been with contaminants, particularly industrial chemicals that can have adverse impacts on human development, neurological functions, reproductive functions, and that appear to be causative agents in a variety of carcinomas. In addition to these serious environmental concerns (where the remedies are often technological, including engineering solutions to reduce the release of contaminants), there are a large number of other risks to human health stemming from ecological imbalance.
Ecosystem distress syndrome results in the loss of valued ecosystem services, including flood control, water quality, air quality, fish and wildlife diversity, and recreation. One of the major signs of EDS is increased disease incidence, both in humans and other species. Human population health should thus be viewed within an ecological context as an expression of the integrity and health of the life-supporting capacity of the environment.
Ecological imbalances triggered by global climate change and other causes are responsible for increased human health risks.
Climate Change and Vector-Borne Diseases. The global infectious disease burden is on the order of several hundred million cases per year. Many vector-borne diseases are climate sensitive. Malaria, dengue fever, hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, and various forms of viral encephalitis are all in this category. All these diseases are the result of arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) which are transmitted to humans as a result of bites from blood-sucking arthropods.
Global climate change—particularly as it impacts both temperatures and precipitation—is highly correlated with the prevalence of vector-borne diseases. For example, viruses carried by mosquitoes, ticks, and other blood-sucking arthropods generally have increased transmission rates with rising temperatures. St. Louis encephalitis (SLE) serves as an example. The mosquito Culex tarsalis carries this virus. The percentage of bites that results in transmission of SLE is dependent on temperature, with greater transmission at higher temperatures.
The temperature dependence of vector-borne diseases is also well illustrated with malaria. Malaria is endemic throughout the tropics, with a high prevalence in Africa, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and parts of South and Central America and Mexico. Approximately 2.4 billion people live in areas of risk, with some 350 million new infections occurring annually, resulting in approximately 2 million deaths, predominantly in young children. Untreated malaria can become a life-long affliction—general symptoms include fever, headache, and malaise.
The climate sensitivity of malaria arises owing to the nature of the interactions of parasites, vectors, and hosts, all of which impact the ultimate transmission rates to humans. The gestation time required for the parasite to become fully developed within the mosquito host (a process termed sporogony) is from eight to thirty-five days. When temperatures are in the range of 20°C to 27°C, the gestation time is reduced. Rainfall and humidity also have an influence. Both drought and heavy rains tend to reduce the population of mosquitoes that serve as vectors for malaria. In drier regions of the tropics, low rainfall and humidity restricts the survival of mosquitoes. Severe flooding can result in scouring of rivers and destruction of the breeding habitats for the mosquito vector, while intermediate rainfall enhances vector production.
Ecological Imbalances. Cholera is a serious and potentially fatal disease that is caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. While not nearly so prevalent as malaria, cases are nonetheless numerous. In 1993, there were 296,206 new cases of cholera reported in South America; 9,280 cases were reported in Mexico; 62,964 cases in Africa; and 64,599 cases in Asia. Most outbreaks in Asia, Africa, and South America have originated in coastal areas. Symptoms of cholera include explosive watery diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. The most recent pandemic of cholera involved more regions than at any previous time in the twentieth century. The disease remains endemic in India, Bangladesh, and Africa. Vibrio cholerae has also been found in the United States—in the Gulf Coast region of Texas, Louisiana, and Florida; the Chesapeake Bay area; and the California coast.
The increase in prevalence of V. cholerae has been strongly linked to degraded coastal marine environments. Nutrient-enriched warmer coastal waters, resulting from a combination of climate change and the use of fertilizers, provides an ideal environment for reproduction and dissemination of V. cholerae. Recent outbreaks of cholera in Bangladesh, for example, are closely correlated with higher sea surface temperatures. V. cholerae attach to the surface of both freshwater and marine copepods (crustaceans), as well as to roots and exposed surfaces of macrophytes (aquatic plants) such as the water hyacinth, the most abundant aquatic plant in Bangladesh. Nutrient enrichment and warmer temperatures give rise to algae blooms and an abundance of macrophytes. The algae blooms provide abundant food for copepods, and the increasing copepod and macrophyte populations provide V. cholerae with habitat. Subsequent dispersal of V. cholerae into estuaries and fresh water bodies allows contact with humans who use these waters for drinking and bathing. Global distribution of marine pathogens such as V. cholerae is further facilitated by ballast water discharged from vessels. Ballast water contains a virtual cocktail of pathogens, including V. cholerae.
Two other examples of how ecological imbalances lead to human health burdens concern the increased prevalence of Lyme disease and hantavirus pulmonary disease. Lyme disease, sonamed because it was first positively identified in Lyme, Connecticut, is a crippling arthritic-type disease that is transmitted by spirochete-infected Ixodes ticks (deer ticks). Ticks acquire the infection from rodents, and spend part of their life cycle on deer. Three factors have combined to increase the risk to humans of contracting Lyme disease, particularly in North America: (1) the elimination of natural deer predators, particularly wolves; (2) reforestation of abandoned farmland has created more favorable habitat for deer; and (3) the creation of suburban estates, which the deer find ideal habitat for browsing. The net result is a rising deer population, which increases the chances of humans coming into more contact with ticks.
By 1995, in the southwestern United States, hantavirus infection was confirmed in ninety-four persons in twenty states, with 48 percent mortality. Variants of the strain that causes hantavirus pulmonary syndrome have also been found in other areas of the country, as well as in Asia and Europe. The virus is apparently asymptomatic in rodents, and it is transmitted in their saliva and excreta. In humans it has a flu-like presentation, which is followed by acute respiratory distress syndrome. The primary reservoir in the Four Corners area of the southwestern United States is the deer mouse. Climatic disturbances, which in recent years are thought to be exacerbated by human activity (e.g., global warming), appear to set up conditions that trigger outbreaks. In the early 1990s, ENSO events initially caused drought conditions to develop in the southwestern United States. This led to a decline in plant and animal populations, including natural predators of the deer mouse. Heavy rains followed the drought in 1993, resulting in a bumper crop of piñon nuts, a major food supply for the deer mouse. Subsequently the deer mouse population greatly increased, bringing about increased contact with humans and triggering the outbreak of hantavirus.
Antibiotic Resistance and Agricultural Practice Antibiotic resistance is a growing threat to public health. Antibiotic resistant strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae, a common bacterial pathogen in humans and a leading cause of many infections, including chronic bronchitis, pneumonia, and meningitis, have greatly increased in prevalence since the mid-1970s. In some regions of the world, up to 70 percent of bacterial isolates taken from patients proved resistant to penicillin and other b-lactam antibiotics. The use of large quantities of antibiotics in agriculture and aquaculture appears to have been a key factor in the development of antibiotic resistance by pathogens in farm animals that subsequently may also infect humans. One of the most serious risks to human health from such practices is vancomycin-resistant enterococci. The use of avoparcin, an animal growth promoter, appears to have compromised the utility of vancomycin, the last antibiotic effective against multi-drug-resistant bacteria. In areas where avoparcin has been used, such as on farms in Denmark and Germany, vancomycin-resistant bacteria have been detected in meat sold in supermarkets. Avoparcin was subsequently banned by the European Union. Another example is the use of ofloxacin to protect chickens from infection and thereby enhance their growth. This drug is closely related to ciprofloxacin, one of the most widely used antibiotics in the year 2000. There have been cases of resistance to ciprofloxacin directly related to its veterinary use. In the United Kingdom, ciprofloxacin resistance developed in strains of campylobacter, a common cause of diarrhea. Multi-drug-resistant strains of salmonella have been traced to European egg production.
Food and Water Security. Agricultural practices are also responsible for a growing number of threats to public health. Some of these are related to inadequate waste management, which has resulted in parasites and bacteria entering water supplies. Others are of entirely different origins and involve apparent transfer across species of pathogens that affect both animals and humans. The most recent and spectacular example is mad cow disease, known as variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans, a neuro-degenerative condition that, in humans, is ultimately fatal. The first case of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE), the animal form of the disease, was identified in Southern England in November 1981. By the fall of 2000, an outbreak had also occurred in France, and isolated cases appeared in Germany, Switzerland, and Spain. More than one hundred deaths in Europe were attributed to what has come to be commonly called mad cow disease.
Improper manure management was the likely source of the outbreak of E. coli 0157:H7 in Walkerton, Ontario, Canada. Other health risks associated with malfunctioning agroecosystems include periodic outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis, a parasitic disease that is spread by surface runoff contaminated by ***** of infected cattle. This parasite causes fever and diarrhea in immunocompetent individuals and severe diarrhea and even death in immunocompromised individuals.
ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION
Ecosystem pathology in some cases can be reversed simply by removing the source of stress. In cases, for example, where ecosystem degradation is the result of point-source additions of nutrients or toxic chemicals, removal of these stresses may result in considerable recovery of ecosystem health. A classic case is Lake Washington (near Seattle, Washington). This lake had become highly anoxic (oxygen-depleted) owing to a sewage outfall entering the lake. Redirecting the sewage outfall away from the lake reversed many of the signs of pathology.
In cases where it is not feasible to remove the source of stress, more innovative engineering solutions have been tried. For example, in the Kyrönjoki and Lestijoki Rivers in western Finland, spring and fall runoff leads to sharp pulses of acidity. Spring runoff from snowmelt, which releases acid from tilled or dug soils, has been particularly damaging to fish, during the critical time of year for spawning. Fish reproduction is severely curtailed, if not all together eliminated in highly acidic water. Further there have been massive fish kills resulting from the highly acidic waters. One possible remedy is to replace the original drains which take runoff from the land to the rivers with new limed drains that can neutralize the acidity. This solution has been implemented on an experimental basis and appears to substantially reduce acidic runoff.
More radical treatments for damaged ecosystems involve “ecosystem surgery.” In some cases, invading exotic vegetation (such as mangroves in Hawaii) have been removed from regions, and native vegetation has been replanted. In areas of North America where wetlands have been severely depleted owing to farming, urbanization, and industrial activity, efforts have been made to establish new wetlands.
More often than not, however, reversing ecosystem pathology is not possible. Efforts to restore the indigenous grasslands in the Jornada Experimental Range in the southwestern United States provide an example. Overgrazing by cattle has severely degraded the landscape and has lead to replacement of the native grasses by largely inedible shrubs, dominated by mesquite. Erosion by wind and episodic heavy rains have left areas between shrubs largely bare, and subsequently underlying sands have developed in dune-like fashion over a large part of the area. The resulting mesquite dunes have proven highly resistant to efforts to restore the native grasslands, although almost every intervention has been tried, including highly toxic defoliants (Agent Orange), fire, and bulldozing.
Even where it has been possible to restore some of the ecological functions of degraded ecosystems, and thus improve ecosystem health, the restoration seldom results in reestablishment of the pristine biotic community. The best that can be achieved in most cases is reestablishment of the key ecological functions that provide the required ecosystem services, such as the regulation of water, primary and secondary productivity, nutrient cycling, and pollination. In all such efforts, key indicators of ecosystem health (vigor, productivity, and resilience) are essential to monitor progress. Standard ecological indicators can be used for this purpose (e.g., measures of productivity, species composition, nutrient flows, soil fertility) along with socioeconomic and human health indicators.
Experience in efforts to restore highly damaged ecosystems suggests that ecosystem-health prevention is far more effective than restoration. For marine ecosystems, setting aside protective zones that afford a sanctuary for fish and wildlife has considerable promise. Many countries are adopting policies to establish such areas with the prospect that these healthy regions can serve as a reservoir for biota that have become depleted in the unprotected areas. Yet this remedy is not without its limits. Restoring ecosystem health is not simply a matter of replenishing lost or damaged biota. It is also a matter of reestablishing the complex interactions among ecosystem lifeforms. Having a ready source of healthy biota that could potentially recolonize damaged ecosystems is important, but it is only part of the solution.
PREVENTION OF ECOSYSTEM DISRUPTIONS
Given the difficulties in reversing ecosystem degradation, and the many associated human health risks that arise with the loss of ecosystem health, the most effective approach is simply the prevention of ecosystem disruption. However, like many common-sense approaches, this is easier said than done. In both developed and developing countries there is a strong inclination to continue economic growth, even at the cost of severe environmental damage. Apart from selfish motivations, the argument is made that economic growth has many obvious health benefits, such as providing more efficient means of distributing food supplies, providing more plentiful food, and providing better health services and funding for research to improve standards of living. These are indeed benefits of economic development, and have led to substantial increases in health status worldwide.
However, at the dawn of the twenty-first century, the past is not necessarily the best guide to the future. The human population is at an all-time high, and associated pressures of human activity have led to increasing degradation of the earth’s ecosystems. As ultimately healthy ecosystems are essential for life of all biota, including humans, current global and regional trends are ominous. Under these circumstances, a tradeoff between immediate material gains and long-term sustainability of humans on the planet may be the only option. If so, the solution to sustaining human health and ecosystem health becomes one of devising a new politic that places sustaining life support systems as a precondition for betterment of the human condition.
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Rapport, D. J., and Regier, H. A. (1980). “An Ecological Approach to Environmental Information.” Ambio 9:22–27.
—— (1995). “Disturbance and Stress Effects on Ecological Systems.” In Complex Ecology: The Part-Whole Relation in Ecosystems, ed. B. C. Patten and S. E. Jorgensen. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Rapport, D. J.; Costanza, R.; and McMichael, A. J. (1998). “Assessing Ecosystem Health: Challenges at the Interface of Social, Natural, and Health Sciences.” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 13(10):397–401.
Rapport, D. J.; Christensen, N.; Karr, J. R.; and Patil, G. P. (1998). “The Centrality of Ecosystem Health in Achieving Sustainability in the Twenty-First Century: Concepts and Approaches to Environmental Management.” In Human Survivability in the Twenty-First Century, ed. D. M. Hayne. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Rapport, D. J.; Costanza, R.; Epstein, P. R.; Gaudet, R.; and Levins, R., eds. (1998). Ecosystem Health. Malden, MA: Blackwell Science.
Rapport, D. J., and Whitford, W. (1999). “How Ecosystems Respond to Stress: Common Properties of Arid and Aquatic Systems.” Bio Science 49(3):193–203.
Rapport, D. J.; Regier, H. A.; and Hutchinson, T. C. (1985). “Ecosystem Behavior under Stress.” American Naturalist 125:617–640.
Reeves, W. C.; Hardy, J. L.; Reisen, W. K.; and Milby, M. M. (1994). “The Potential Effect of Global Warming on Mosquito-Borne Arboviruses.” Journal of Medical Entomology 31(3):323–332.
Ruiz, G. M.; Rawlings, T. K.; Dobbs, F. C.; Drake, L. A.; Mullady, T.; Huq, A.; and Colwell, R. R.. (2000). “Global Spread of Microorganisms by Ships.” Nature 408:49–50.
Watson R. T.; Zinyowera, M. C.; and Moss, R. H., eds. (1996). Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Elvis
Imbalance of Ecosystems and Its effect on Public and Livestock health
Dr.Kedar Karki M.V.St. (Preventive veterinary Medicine)
Central Veterinary Laboratory Tripureshwor
The health of humans, like all living organisms, is dependent on an ecosystem that sustains life. Healthy ecosystems are the sine qua non for healthy organisms. Yet there is abundant evidence that many life-support systems are far from healthy, placing an increased burden on human health. In some areas of the world, gains in life expectancy and quality of life made during the twentieth century are at risk of being reversed in the twenty-first century. The consequences of ecosystem degradation to human health are numerous, and include health risks from unsafe drinking water, polluted air, climate change, emerging new diseases, and the resurgence of old diseases owing to ecological imbalances. Reversing this damage is possible in some cases, but not in others. Prevention of ecological damage is by far the most efficient strategy.
DEFINING ECOSYSTEMS
An ecological system may be defined as a community of plants and animals interacting with each other and their abiotic, or natural, environment. Typically, ecosystems are differentiated on the basis of dominant vegetation, topography, climate, or some other criteria. Boreal forests, for example, are characterized by the predominance of coniferous trees; prairies are characterized by the predominance of grasses; the Arctic tundra is determined partly by the harsh climatic zone. In most areas of the world, the human community is an important and often dominant component of the ecosystem. Ecosystems include not only natural areas (e.g., forests, lakes, marine coastal systems) but also human-constructed systems (e.g., urban ecosystems, agro-ecosystems, impoundments). Human populations are increasingly concentrated in urban ecosystems, and it is estimated that, by the year 2010, 50 percent of the world’s population will be living in urban areas.
A landscape comprises a mosaic of ecosystems, including towns, rivers, lakes, agricultural systems, and so on. Precise boundaries between ecosystems are often difficult to establish. Often regions slide into one another gradually, over a protracted “transition” zone, as for example between the boreal forest and the Taiga regions of Canada.
ECOSYSTEM HEALTH
It is important to recognize the inherent difficulties in defining “health,” whether at the level of the individual, population, or ecosystem. The concept of health is somewhat of an enigma, being easier to define in its absence (sickness) than in its presence. Perhaps partially for that reason, ecologists have resisted applying the notion of “health” to ecosystems. Yet, ecosystems can become dysfunctional, particularly under chronic stress from human activity.Example for this can be cited the discharge of nutrients from sewage, industrial waste, or agricultural runoff into lakes or rivers affects the normal functioning of the ecosystem, and can result in severe impairment. Excessive nutrient inputs from human activity was one of the major factors that severely compromised the health of the lower Laurentian Great Lakes (Lake Erie and Lake Ontario) and regions of the upper Great Lakes (Lake Michigan). Unfortunately, degraded ecosystems are becoming more the rule than the exception.
The study of the features of degraded systems, and comparisons with systems that have not been altered by human activity, makes it possible to identify the characteristics of healthy ecosystems. Healthy ecosystems may be characterized not only by the absence of signs of pathology, but also by signs of health, including measures of vigor (productivity), organization, and resilience.
Vigor can be assessed in terms of the metabolism (activity and productivity) of the system. Ecosystems differ greatly in their normal ranges of productivity. Estuaries are far more productive than open oceans, and marshes have higher productivity than deserts. Health is not evaluated by applying one standard to all systems. Organization can be assessed by the structure of the biotic community that forms an ecosystem and by the nature of the interactions between the species (both plants and animals). Invariably, healthy ecosystems have more diversity of biota than ecologically compromised systems. Resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to maintain its structure and functions in the face of natural disturbances. Systems with a history of chronic stress are less likely to recover from normal perturbations such as drought than those systems that have been relatively less stressed.
Healthy ecosystems can also be characterized in economic, social, and human health terms. Healthy ecosystems support a certain level of economic activity. This is not to say that the ecosystem is necessarily self-sufficient, but rather that it supports economic productivity to enable the human community to meet reasonable needs. Inevitably, ecosystem degradation impinges on the long-term sustainability of the human economy that is associated with it, although in the short-term this may not be evident, as natural capital (e.g., soils, renewable resources) may be overexploited and temporarily enhance economic returns. Similarly, with respect to social well-being, healthy ecosystems provide a basis for and encourage community integration. Historically, for example, native Hawaiian groups managed their ecosystem through a well-developed social cohesiveness that provided a high degree of cooperation in fishing and farming activity.
Another reflection of ecosystem health lies directly in the public health domain. In spring 2000, a deadly strain of the bacterium E-coli (0157:H7) entered the public water supply in Walkerton, Ontario, Canada, causing seven deaths and making thousands sick. This small town, with a population of five thousand, is in a farming community. Inadequate manure management from cattle operations was the likely source of this tragedy.
HOW HEALTHY ECOSYSTEMS BECOME PATHOLOGICAL
Stress from human activity is a major factor in transforming healthy ecosystems to sick ecosystems. Chronic stress from human activity differs from natural disturbances. Natural disturbances (fires, floods, periodic insect infestations) are part of the dynamics of most ecosystems. These processes help to “reset” ecosystems by recycling nutrients and clearing space for recolonization by biota that may be better adapted to changing environments. Thus, natural perturbations help keep ecosystems healthy. In contrast, chronic and acute stress on ecosystems resulting from human activity (e.g., construction of large dams, release of nutrients and toxic substances into the air, water, and land) generally results in long-term ecological dysfunction.
Five major sources of human-induced (anthropogenic) stresses have been identified by D. J. Rapport and A. M. Friend (1979): physical restructuring, overharvesting, waste residuals, introduction of exotic species, and global change.
Physical Restructuring. Activities such as wetland drainage, removal of shoals in lakes, damming of rivers, and road construction fragment the landscape and alter and damage critical habitat. These activities also disrupt nutrient cycling, and cause the loss of biodiversity.
Overharvesting. Overexploitation is commonplace when it comes to harvesting of wildlife, fisheries, and forests. Over long periods of time, stocks of preferred species are reduced. For example, the giant redwoods that once thrived along the California coast now exist only in remnant patches because of overharvesting. When dominant species like the giant redwoods (arguably the world’s tallest tree—one specimen was recorded at 110 meters tall with a circumference of 13.4 meters) are lost, the entire ecosystem becomes transformed. Overharvesting often results in reduced biodiversity of endemic species, while facilitating the invasion of opportunistic species.
Waste Residuals. Discharges from municipal, industrial, and agricultural sources into the air, water, and land have severely compromised many of the earth’s ecosystems. The effects are particularly apparent in aquatic ecosystems. In some lakes that lack a natural buffering capacity, acid precipitation has eliminated most of the fish and other organisms. While the visual effect appears beneficial (water clarity goes up) the impact on ecosystem health is devastating. Systems that once contained a variety of organisms and were highly productive (biologically) become devoid of most lifeforms except for a few acid-tolerant bacteria and sediment-dwelling organisms.
Introduction of Exotic Species. The spread of exotics has become a problem in almost every ecosystem of the world. Transporting species from their native habitat to entirely new ecosystems can wreck havoc, as the new environments are often without natural checks and balances for the new species. In the Great Lakes Basin, the accidental introduction of two small pelagic fishes, the alewife and the rainbow smelt, combined with the simultaneous overharvesting of natural predators, such as the lake trout, led to a significant decline in native fish species. The introduction of the sea lamprey, an eel-like predacious fish that attacks larger fish, into Lake Erie and the upper Great Lakes further destabilized the native fish community. The sea lamprey contributed to the demise of the deepwater benthic fish community by preying on lake trout, whitefish, and burbot. This contributed to a shift in the fish community from one that had been dominated by large benthics to one dominated by small pelagics (fish found in the upper layers of the lake profile). This shift from bottom-dwelling fish (benthic) to surface-dwelling fish (pelagic) has now been partially reversed by yet another accidental introduction of an exotic: the zebra mussel. As the zebra mussel is a highly efficient filter of both phtyoplankton and zooplankton, its presence has reduced the available food in the surface waters for pelagic fish. However, while the benthic fish community has gained back its dominance, the preferred benthic fish species have not yet recovered owing to the degree of initial degradation. Overall, the increasing dominance by exotics not only altered the ecology, but also reduced significantly the commercial value of the fisheries.
Global Change. Rapid climate change (or climate warming) is an emerging potential global stress on all of the earth’s ecosystems. In evolutionary time, there have of course been large fluctuations in climate. However, for the most part these fluctuations have occurred gradually over long periods of time. Rapid climate change is an entirely different matter. By altering both averages and extremes in precipitation, temperature, and storm events, and by destabilizing the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), which controls weather patterns over much of the southern Pacific region, many ecosystem processes can become significantly altered. Excessive periods of drought or unusually heavy rains and flooding will exceed the tolerance for many species, thus changing the biotic composition. Flooding and unusually high winds contribute to soil erosion, and at the same time add to nutrient load in rivers and coastal waters.
These anthropogenic stresses have compromised ecosystem function in most regions of the world, resulting in ecosystem distress syndrome (EDS). EDS is characterized by a group of signs, including abnormalities in nutrient cycling, productivity, species diversity and richness, biotic structure, disease prevalence, soil fertility, and so on. The consequences of these changes for human health are not inconsiderable. Impoverished biotic communities are natural harbors for pathogens that affect humans and other species.
ECOSYSTEM HEALTH AND HUMAN HEALTH
An important aspect of ecosystem degradation is the associated increased risk to human health. Traditionally, the concern has been with contaminants, particularly industrial chemicals that can have adverse impacts on human development, neurological functions, reproductive functions, and that appear to be causative agents in a variety of carcinomas. In addition to these serious environmental concerns (where the remedies are often technological, including engineering solutions to reduce the release of contaminants), there are a large number of other risks to human health stemming from ecological imbalance.
Ecosystem distress syndrome results in the loss of valued ecosystem services, including flood control, water quality, air quality, fish and wildlife diversity, and recreation. One of the major signs of EDS is increased disease incidence, both in humans and other species. Human population health should thus be viewed within an ecological context as an expression of the integrity and health of the life-supporting capacity of the environment.
Ecological imbalances triggered by global climate change and other causes are responsible for increased human health risks.
Climate Change and Vector-Borne Diseases. The global infectious disease burden is on the order of several hundred million cases per year. Many vector-borne diseases are climate sensitive. Malaria, dengue fever, hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, and various forms of viral encephalitis are all in this category. All these diseases are the result of arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) which are transmitted to humans as a result of bites from blood-sucking arthropods.
Global climate change—particularly as it impacts both temperatures and precipitation—is highly correlated with the prevalence of vector-borne diseases. For example, viruses carried by mosquitoes, ticks, and other blood-sucking arthropods generally have increased transmission rates with rising temperatures. St. Louis encephalitis (SLE) serves as an example. The mosquito Culex tarsalis carries this virus. The percentage of bites that results in transmission of SLE is dependent on temperature, with greater transmission at higher temperatures.
The temperature dependence of vector-borne diseases is also well illustrated with malaria. Malaria is endemic throughout the tropics, with a high prevalence in Africa, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and parts of South and Central America and Mexico. Approximately 2.4 billion people live in areas of risk, with some 350 million new infections occurring annually, resulting in approximately 2 million deaths, predominantly in young children. Untreated malaria can become a life-long affliction—general symptoms include fever, headache, and malaise.
The climate sensitivity of malaria arises owing to the nature of the interactions of parasites, vectors, and hosts, all of which impact the ultimate transmission rates to humans. The gestation time required for the parasite to become fully developed within the mosquito host (a process termed sporogony) is from eight to thirty-five days. When temperatures are in the range of 20°C to 27°C, the gestation time is reduced. Rainfall and humidity also have an influence. Both drought and heavy rains tend to reduce the population of mosquitoes that serve as vectors for malaria. In drier regions of the tropics, low rainfall and humidity restricts the survival of mosquitoes. Severe flooding can result in scouring of rivers and destruction of the breeding habitats for the mosquito vector, while intermediate rainfall enhances vector production.
Ecological Imbalances. Cholera is a serious and potentially fatal disease that is caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. While not nearly so prevalent as malaria, cases are nonetheless numerous. In 1993, there were 296,206 new cases of cholera reported in South America; 9,280 cases were reported in Mexico; 62,964 cases in Africa; and 64,599 cases in Asia. Most outbreaks in Asia, Africa, and South America have originated in coastal areas. Symptoms of cholera include explosive watery diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. The most recent pandemic of cholera involved more regions than at any previous time in the twentieth century. The disease remains endemic in India, Bangladesh, and Africa. Vibrio cholerae has also been found in the United States—in the Gulf Coast region of Texas, Louisiana, and Florida; the Chesapeake Bay area; and the California coast.
The increase in prevalence of V. cholerae has been strongly linked to degraded coastal marine environments. Nutrient-enriched warmer coastal waters, resulting from a combination of climate change and the use of fertilizers, provides an ideal environment for reproduction and dissemination of V. cholerae. Recent outbreaks of cholera in Bangladesh, for example, are closely correlated with higher sea surface temperatures. V. cholerae attach to the surface of both freshwater and marine copepods (crustaceans), as well as to roots and exposed surfaces of macrophytes (aquatic plants) such as the water hyacinth, the most abundant aquatic plant in Bangladesh. Nutrient enrichment and warmer temperatures give rise to algae blooms and an abundance of macrophytes. The algae blooms provide abundant food for copepods, and the increasing copepod and macrophyte populations provide V. cholerae with habitat. Subsequent dispersal of V. cholerae into estuaries and fresh water bodies allows contact with humans who use these waters for drinking and bathing. Global distribution of marine pathogens such as V. cholerae is further facilitated by ballast water discharged from vessels. Ballast water contains a virtual cocktail of pathogens, including V. cholerae.
Two other examples of how ecological imbalances lead to human health burdens concern the increased prevalence of Lyme disease and hantavirus pulmonary disease. Lyme disease, sonamed because it was first positively identified in Lyme, Connecticut, is a crippling arthritic-type disease that is transmitted by spirochete-infected Ixodes ticks (deer ticks). Ticks acquire the infection from rodents, and spend part of their life cycle on deer. Three factors have combined to increase the risk to humans of contracting Lyme disease, particularly in North America: (1) the elimination of natural deer predators, particularly wolves; (2) reforestation of abandoned farmland has created more favorable habitat for deer; and (3) the creation of suburban estates, which the deer find ideal habitat for browsing. The net result is a rising deer population, which increases the chances of humans coming into more contact with ticks.
By 1995, in the southwestern United States, hantavirus infection was confirmed in ninety-four persons in twenty states, with 48 percent mortality. Variants of the strain that causes hantavirus pulmonary syndrome have also been found in other areas of the country, as well as in Asia and Europe. The virus is apparently asymptomatic in rodents, and it is transmitted in their saliva and excreta. In humans it has a flu-like presentation, which is followed by acute respiratory distress syndrome. The primary reservoir in the Four Corners area of the southwestern United States is the deer mouse. Climatic disturbances, which in recent years are thought to be exacerbated by human activity (e.g., global warming), appear to set up conditions that trigger outbreaks. In the early 1990s, ENSO events initially caused drought conditions to develop in the southwestern United States. This led to a decline in plant and animal populations, including natural predators of the deer mouse. Heavy rains followed the drought in 1993, resulting in a bumper crop of piñon nuts, a major food supply for the deer mouse. Subsequently the deer mouse population greatly increased, bringing about increased contact with humans and triggering the outbreak of hantavirus.
Antibiotic Resistance and Agricultural Practice Antibiotic resistance is a growing threat to public health. Antibiotic resistant strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae, a common bacterial pathogen in humans and a leading cause of many infections, including chronic bronchitis, pneumonia, and meningitis, have greatly increased in prevalence since the mid-1970s. In some regions of the world, up to 70 percent of bacterial isolates taken from patients proved resistant to penicillin and other b-lactam antibiotics. The use of large quantities of antibiotics in agriculture and aquaculture appears to have been a key factor in the development of antibiotic resistance by pathogens in farm animals that subsequently may also infect humans. One of the most serious risks to human health from such practices is vancomycin-resistant enterococci. The use of avoparcin, an animal growth promoter, appears to have compromised the utility of vancomycin, the last antibiotic effective against multi-drug-resistant bacteria. In areas where avoparcin has been used, such as on farms in Denmark and Germany, vancomycin-resistant bacteria have been detected in meat sold in supermarkets. Avoparcin was subsequently banned by the European Union. Another example is the use of ofloxacin to protect chickens from infection and thereby enhance their growth. This drug is closely related to ciprofloxacin, one of the most widely used antibiotics in the year 2000. There have been cases of resistance to ciprofloxacin directly related to its veterinary use. In the United Kingdom, ciprofloxacin resistance developed in strains of campylobacter, a common cause of diarrhea. Multi-drug-resistant strains of salmonella have been traced to European egg production.
Food and Water Security. Agricultural practices are also responsible for a growing number of threats to public health. Some of these are related to inadequate waste management, which has resulted in parasites and bacteria entering water supplies. Others are of entirely different origins and involve apparent transfer across species of pathogens that affect both animals and humans. The most recent and spectacular example is mad cow disease, known as variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans, a neuro-degenerative condition that, in humans, is ultimately fatal. The first case of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE), the animal form of the disease, was identified in Southern England in November 1981. By the fall of 2000, an outbreak had also occurred in France, and isolated cases appeared in Germany, Switzerland, and Spain. More than one hundred deaths in Europe were attributed to what has come to be commonly called mad cow disease.
Improper manure management was the likely source of the outbreak of E. coli 0157:H7 in Walkerton, Ontario, Canada. Other health risks associated with malfunctioning agroecosystems include periodic outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis, a parasitic disease that is spread by surface runoff contaminated by ***** of infected cattle. This parasite causes fever and diarrhea in immunocompetent individuals and severe diarrhea and even death in immunocompromised individuals.
ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION
Ecosystem pathology in some cases can be reversed simply by removing the source of stress. In cases, for example, where ecosystem degradation is the result of point-source additions of nutrients or toxic chemicals, removal of these stresses may result in considerable recovery of ecosystem health. A classic case is Lake Washington (near Seattle, Washington). This lake had become highly anoxic (oxygen-depleted) owing to a sewage outfall entering the lake. Redirecting the sewage outfall away from the lake reversed many of the signs of pathology.
In cases where it is not feasible to remove the source of stress, more innovative engineering solutions have been tried. For example, in the Kyrönjoki and Lestijoki Rivers in western Finland, spring and fall runoff leads to sharp pulses of acidity. Spring runoff from snowmelt, which releases acid from tilled or dug soils, has been particularly damaging to fish, during the critical time of year for spawning. Fish reproduction is severely curtailed, if not all together eliminated in highly acidic water. Further there have been massive fish kills resulting from the highly acidic waters. One possible remedy is to replace the original drains which take runoff from the land to the rivers with new limed drains that can neutralize the acidity. This solution has been implemented on an experimental basis and appears to substantially reduce acidic runoff.
More radical treatments for damaged ecosystems involve “ecosystem surgery.” In some cases, invading exotic vegetation (such as mangroves in Hawaii) have been removed from regions, and native vegetation has been replanted. In areas of North America where wetlands have been severely depleted owing to farming, urbanization, and industrial activity, efforts have been made to establish new wetlands.
More often than not, however, reversing ecosystem pathology is not possible. Efforts to restore the indigenous grasslands in the Jornada Experimental Range in the southwestern United States provide an example. Overgrazing by cattle has severely degraded the landscape and has lead to replacement of the native grasses by largely inedible shrubs, dominated by mesquite. Erosion by wind and episodic heavy rains have left areas between shrubs largely bare, and subsequently underlying sands have developed in dune-like fashion over a large part of the area. The resulting mesquite dunes have proven highly resistant to efforts to restore the native grasslands, although almost every intervention has been tried, including highly toxic defoliants (Agent Orange), fire, and bulldozing.
Even where it has been possible to restore some of the ecological functions of degraded ecosystems, and thus improve ecosystem health, the restoration seldom results in reestablishment of the pristine biotic community. The best that can be achieved in most cases is reestablishment of the key ecological functions that provide the required ecosystem services, such as the regulation of water, primary and secondary productivity, nutrient cycling, and pollination. In all such efforts, key indicators of ecosystem health (vigor, productivity, and resilience) are essential to monitor progress. Standard ecological indicators can be used for this purpose (e.g., measures of productivity, species composition, nutrient flows, soil fertility) along with socioeconomic and human health indicators.
Experience in efforts to restore highly damaged ecosystems suggests that ecosystem-health prevention is far more effective than restoration. For marine ecosystems, setting aside protective zones that afford a sanctuary for fish and wildlife has considerable promise. Many countries are adopting policies to establish such areas with the prospect that these healthy regions can serve as a reservoir for biota that have become depleted in the unprotected areas. Yet this remedy is not without its limits. Restoring ecosystem health is not simply a matter of replenishing lost or damaged biota. It is also a matter of reestablishing the complex interactions among ecosystem lifeforms. Having a ready source of healthy biota that could potentially recolonize damaged ecosystems is important, but it is only part of the solution.
PREVENTION OF ECOSYSTEM DISRUPTIONS
Given the difficulties in reversing ecosystem degradation, and the many associated human health risks that arise with the loss of ecosystem health, the most effective approach is simply the prevention of ecosystem disruption. However, like many common-sense approaches, this is easier said than done. In both developed and developing countries there is a strong inclination to continue economic growth, even at the cost of severe environmental damage. Apart from selfish motivations, the argument is made that economic growth has many obvious health benefits, such as providing more efficient means of distributing food supplies, providing more plentiful food, and providing better health services and funding for research to improve standards of living. These are indeed benefits of economic development, and have led to substantial increases in health status worldwide.
However, at the dawn of the twenty-first century, the past is not necessarily the best guide to the future. The human population is at an all-time high, and associated pressures of human activity have led to increasing degradation of the earth’s ecosystems. As ultimately healthy ecosystems are essential for life of all biota, including humans, current global and regional trends are ominous. Under these circumstances, a tradeoff between immediate material gains and long-term sustainability of humans on the planet may be the only option. If so, the solution to sustaining human health and ecosystem health becomes one of devising a new politic that places sustaining life support systems as a precondition for betterment of the human condition.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aldhous, P. (2000). “Inquiry Blames Missed Warnings for Scale of Britain’s BSE Crisis.” Nature 408:3–5.
Baquero, R., and Blazquez, J. (1997). “Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance.” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 12:482–487.
Bright, C. (1998). Life Out of Bounds: Bioinvasion in a Borderless World. New York: W. W. Norton.
Colwell, R. R. (1996). “Global Climate and Infectious Disease: The Cholera Paradigm.” Science 274:2025–2031.
Colwell, R. R., and Patz, J. A. (1998). Climate, Infectious Disease and Health: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. Washington, DC: American Academy of Microbiology.
Epstein, P. R. (1995). “Emerging Diseases and Ecosystem Instability: New Threats to Public Health.” American Journal of Public Health 85(2):168–172.
Huq, A., and Colwell, R. R. (1996). “Vibrios in the Marine and Estuarine Environment: Tracking Vibrio Cholerae.” Ecosystem Health 2:198–214.
Mageau, M. T.; Costanza, R.; and Ulanowicz, R. E. (1995). “The Development and Initial Testing of a Quantitative Assessment of Ecosystem Health.” Ecosystem Health 1:201–213.
Rapport, D. J. (1989). “What Constitutes Ecosystem Health?” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 33:120–132.
Rapport, D. J., and Friend, A. M. (1979). Towards a Comprehensive Framework for Environmental Statistics: A Stress-Response Approach. Ottawa: Statistics Canada.
Rapport, D. J., and Regier, H. A. (1980). “An Ecological Approach to Environmental Information.” Ambio 9:22–27.
—— (1995). “Disturbance and Stress Effects on Ecological Systems.” In Complex Ecology: The Part-Whole Relation in Ecosystems, ed. B. C. Patten and S. E. Jorgensen. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Rapport, D. J.; Costanza, R.; and McMichael, A. J. (1998). “Assessing Ecosystem Health: Challenges at the Interface of Social, Natural, and Health Sciences.” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 13(10):397–401.
Rapport, D. J.; Christensen, N.; Karr, J. R.; and Patil, G. P. (1998). “The Centrality of Ecosystem Health in Achieving Sustainability in the Twenty-First Century: Concepts and Approaches to Environmental Management.” In Human Survivability in the Twenty-First Century, ed. D. M. Hayne. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Rapport, D. J.; Costanza, R.; Epstein, P. R.; Gaudet, R.; and Levins, R., eds. (1998). Ecosystem Health. Malden, MA: Blackwell Science.
Rapport, D. J., and Whitford, W. (1999). “How Ecosystems Respond to Stress: Common Properties of Arid and Aquatic Systems.” Bio Science 49(3):193–203.
Rapport, D. J.; Regier, H. A.; and Hutchinson, T. C. (1985). “Ecosystem Behavior under Stress.” American Naturalist 125:617–640.
Reeves, W. C.; Hardy, J. L.; Reisen, W. K.; and Milby, M. M. (1994). “The Potential Effect of Global Warming on Mosquito-Borne Arboviruses.” Journal of Medical Entomology 31(3):323–332.
Ruiz, G. M.; Rawlings, T. K.; Dobbs, F. C.; Drake, L. A.; Mullady, T.; Huq, A.; and Colwell, R. R.. (2000). “Global Spread of Microorganisms by Ships.” Nature 408:49–50.
Watson R. T.; Zinyowera, M. C.; and Moss, R. H., eds. (1996). Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Elvis
Aug
14
Vikram Kumar asked:
The issue of the growing number of Americans without health insurance is a thorny one. With this in view, Texas Health Insurance companies are offering affordable health insurance programs for companies, individuals, family groups, and the elderly. With health care costs increasing, the offers are a welcome respite for families in the median group.
With health insurance, people can avail of long term nursing care, disability compensation, routine and preventive health care. As a consumer, ask if the company the specifics of the health services covered in their heath insurance plans to be able to assess if you are getting what you need for yourself or for your family because Texas health insurance plans are varied to fit individual and group needs.
With online applications available, you can easily evaluate if you can afford certain Texas health insurance plans by getting online insurance quotes. Health insurance plans come in various priced packages and you can get a quote for each without bothering to visit the insurance company, which provides the same prompt and friendly service online.
What You Need to Know About Health Insurance
For the average person, health insurance processes and paperwork can be confusing because there are several clauses, rules, limitations, and exceptions. Hence, you need to know what the basics are to understand how health insurance works to get what you want in a health insurance plan.
A health insurance is a contract between you and the insurer. You agree to buy the premium, which is payable monthly, quarterly, or annually. The Texas health insurance company is bound to pay for the health and medical services that are covered in the health plan you purchase. However, be alert to the fact that it takes awhile before the insurance company pays your medical expenses.
As a policyholder, you will come across the following health insurance jargon:
· Premium – the monthly payment for the plan
· Deductible – the money you shell out before the company starts paying your health care or medical expenses.
· Co-payment - the payment you give from your own pocket to visits to the doctor and doctor’s prescriptions.
· Coinsurance – in this case, the patient pays 20 percent of the surgery expenses and the insurance company will shoulder 80%.
· Coverage limits – Some areas not fully covered and the company can only pay up to a certain limit.
· Out of pocket maximum – the maximum placed on the number of out-of-pocket payments before the company starts paying medical expenses
· Capitation – the amount paid to a health provider who agrees to service the insured and his group or family members.
· In-network provider - the selected health care providers of the insurer. This is cheaper than seeking health and medical service providers outside of the insurer’s network.
In some cases, health providers send the bill to Texas health insurance companies, provided you commit to pay for the services not covered by the insurance. Generally, with a health insurance, you pay less compared to the astronomical medical bills you shoulder alone without health insurance.
Don’t wait until something happens to you or your loved ones. Get online insurance quotes from Texas health insurance companies ready to give the health insurance package you need and can afford. Be a step ahead now towards your future.
Jimmy
The issue of the growing number of Americans without health insurance is a thorny one. With this in view, Texas Health Insurance companies are offering affordable health insurance programs for companies, individuals, family groups, and the elderly. With health care costs increasing, the offers are a welcome respite for families in the median group.
With health insurance, people can avail of long term nursing care, disability compensation, routine and preventive health care. As a consumer, ask if the company the specifics of the health services covered in their heath insurance plans to be able to assess if you are getting what you need for yourself or for your family because Texas health insurance plans are varied to fit individual and group needs.
With online applications available, you can easily evaluate if you can afford certain Texas health insurance plans by getting online insurance quotes. Health insurance plans come in various priced packages and you can get a quote for each without bothering to visit the insurance company, which provides the same prompt and friendly service online.
What You Need to Know About Health Insurance
For the average person, health insurance processes and paperwork can be confusing because there are several clauses, rules, limitations, and exceptions. Hence, you need to know what the basics are to understand how health insurance works to get what you want in a health insurance plan.
A health insurance is a contract between you and the insurer. You agree to buy the premium, which is payable monthly, quarterly, or annually. The Texas health insurance company is bound to pay for the health and medical services that are covered in the health plan you purchase. However, be alert to the fact that it takes awhile before the insurance company pays your medical expenses.
As a policyholder, you will come across the following health insurance jargon:
· Premium – the monthly payment for the plan
· Deductible – the money you shell out before the company starts paying your health care or medical expenses.
· Co-payment - the payment you give from your own pocket to visits to the doctor and doctor’s prescriptions.
· Coinsurance – in this case, the patient pays 20 percent of the surgery expenses and the insurance company will shoulder 80%.
· Coverage limits – Some areas not fully covered and the company can only pay up to a certain limit.
· Out of pocket maximum – the maximum placed on the number of out-of-pocket payments before the company starts paying medical expenses
· Capitation – the amount paid to a health provider who agrees to service the insured and his group or family members.
· In-network provider - the selected health care providers of the insurer. This is cheaper than seeking health and medical service providers outside of the insurer’s network.
In some cases, health providers send the bill to Texas health insurance companies, provided you commit to pay for the services not covered by the insurance. Generally, with a health insurance, you pay less compared to the astronomical medical bills you shoulder alone without health insurance.
Don’t wait until something happens to you or your loved ones. Get online insurance quotes from Texas health insurance companies ready to give the health insurance package you need and can afford. Be a step ahead now towards your future.
Jimmy
Aug
9
How would you feel about a wellness center?
Filed Under Wellness | 2 Comments
chaneluvr asked:
How many of you pregnant and postpartum moms would pay to go to a wellness center and salon? Everything is natural, there are no harmful chemicals anywhere even the hair dye and nail polish would be natural. Would you pay for its services?
well my mother and I want to open a salon/ wellness center specifically for these types of women, I am asking if anyone would pay for our services.
Montague
How many of you pregnant and postpartum moms would pay to go to a wellness center and salon? Everything is natural, there are no harmful chemicals anywhere even the hair dye and nail polish would be natural. Would you pay for its services?
well my mother and I want to open a salon/ wellness center specifically for these types of women, I am asking if anyone would pay for our services.
Montague
